Mari's History of Adult and Community Education

History of Adult/Community Education in the 1960s

Mariatu A. Swayne

Ball State University
EDAC 631

Due February 8, 2015

History of Adult/Community Education in the 1960s

Introduction

The 1960’s was a decade of advancement. Although some believe the 1960’s was full of hate, sorrow, solace, and darkness, it also was a decade that brought forth a shift of transformation, and the opportunity for the world’s citizens to step up for the rights of others and the beginning of true reformation.

At the beginning of the 1960s, many Americans believed they were standing at the dawn of a golden age. During his presidential campaign in 1960, John F. Kennedyhad promised the most ambitious domestic agenda since the New Deal: the “New Frontier,” a package of laws and reforms that sought to eliminate injustice and inequality in the United States. On January 20, 1961, the handsome and charismatic John F. Kennedy became president of the United States. His confidence that, as one historian put it, “the government possessed big answers to big problems” seemed to set the tone for the rest of the decade. However, that golden age never materialized. On the contrary, by the end of the 1960s it seemed that the nation was falling apart (“1960’s,” 2014). It was not until 1964, after Kennedy was shot, that President Lyndon B. Johnsoncould muster the political capital to enact his own expansive program of reforms. That year, Johnson declared that he would make the United States into a “Great Society” in which poverty and racial injustice had no place. He developed a set of programs that would give poor people “a hand up, not a handout.” (“1960’s,” 2014).

According to the US DOE (2013), by the mid-1960s, powerful economic and social forces resulted in legislative responses to previously neglected educational and training needs of poor, unemployed, unskilled, and undereducated adults. One of these forces was an economic recession during which unemployment rates climbed to the highest levels since the 1930s. Another major force was the civil rights movement, which demanded an end to social, political, and economic discrimination and redress of inequities suffered by its victims.

Highlights

According to the US DOE (2013), initially, programs established to stimulate economic growth focused attention on providing training to unemployed heads of households who had previous employment experience. The Area Redevelopment Act and Manpower Development and Training Act (MDTA) sought to aid those persons whose unemployment was caused by geographic shifts in demand for labor and changes in skill requirements due to technological advances. These measures were not designed to be responsive to those who were chronically unemployed and lacked basic educational requirements for entry into training programs. However, 1963 amendments to the MDTA contained specific provisions to meet the needs of these populations by providing funds for teaching basic educational skills to unemployed adults and out-of-school youth to prepare them for participation in skills-training programs.

According to Kremen (1974), President John F. Kennedy told the legislators that "Large scale unemployment during a recession is bad enough, but large scale unemployment during a period of prosperity would be intolerable." Four days later, he transmitted a bill to Congress that dealt with just such a situation. The Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962 endeavored to train and retrain thousands of workers unemployed because of automation and technological change. It was clear that more education and a means to the improvement of the quality of life was well past due and citizens were ready for change.

According to the US DOE (2013) in the early 1950s, the U.S. Office of Education organizational chart included an Adult Education Section so the need for Adult Education was on the verge of growing. The Adult Education Section gave special attention to statistics, education of the aging, literacy, adult basic education, community development, education for public affairs, leisure time education, and human relations education.

Education was recognized as a factor in improving the economic status of the poor and unemployed. In 1964, the Adult Basic Education program was passed as Title IIB of the Economic Opportunity Act, authorized through the Office of Economic Opportunity but administered by the U.S. Office of Education (USOE) (Rose, 1991). Adult Basic Education, in particular was included to provide grants to state educational agencies for programs of instruction for persons eighteen years and older whose inability to read and write English is an impediment to employment (Pollack, 2004).

The mid-to-late 1960s marked a major turning point. Changes in federal policy, coupled with big changes in public attitudes and expectations, opened up higher education as never before. From a policy perspective, the passage of the Higher Education Act of 1965 was arguably the most important change, as it extended need-based financial assistance to the general population for the first time. The federal role expanded in other ways, too, fueling growth on college and university campuses. Starting in 1963, for example, the federal government launched a major program for facilities construction, targeting "developing institutions" like community colleges and historically black colleges and universities (Brock, 2010). These developing institutions were one example of adult education opportunities for the community in traditionally low-income areas.

According to the US DOE (2013), federal responsibility for adult education became much clearer with passage of the Adult Education Act in 1966, two years after passage of Title II, Part B of the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964. The first adult education office was in a branch structure of the U.S. Department of Education. The 1960s witnessed an enlarged federal role in adult education. Federal legislation resulted in new sources of funds and a new direction for adult basic education and corresponding growth of the program. The legislation also heightened national consciousness concerning the need to improve economic and educational conditions of disadvantaged adults. Staff positions in the Adult Education Section of the U.S. Department of Education included personnel with experience in adult continuing education, civil defense, lifelong learning programs, and adult literacy. This new direction of federal policy may be understood best in the context of the Kennedy and Johnson eras as part of an antipoverty program—the Acts of 1964, 1966, and 1968 (Economic Opportunity Act, 1964; Adult Education Act, 1966; Elementary and Secondary Education Act Amendments, 1968).

Influential Factors

           The 1960’s was a different time for all people. The assassinations of United States President John F. Kennedy; in addition to Malcolm X, Martin Luther King, Jr., and Robert Kennedy, brought to the forefront that the issues were not just about race, but about class and poverty as well. People were suffering and living in poverty in record numbers. These individuals along with so many others did influence the changes for adult education. President Lyndon B. Johnson is also in this group of influential people as he was President during the time of many of the federal acts that were passed due to the assassination of President Kennedy.

The Civil Rights Movement of the 1960’s saw everything from lunch counter sit-ins and the Montgomery Bus Boycott, the War on Poverty, the Freedom Rides and the Marches across the south for civil rights. The Civil Rights Movement did in fact make a change for many and many believe that the changes that took place happened because people from every walk of life fought for the rights of freedom for all. 

Another main influential factor of the 1960’s was the passing of The Civil Rights Act of 1964. Under the Civil Rights Act, segregation on the grounds of race, religion or national origin was banned at all places of public accommodation, including courthouses, parks, restaurants, theaters, sports arenas and hotels. No longer could blacks and other minorities be denied service simply based on the color of their skin. The act also barred race, religious, national origin and gender discrimination by employers and labor unions, and created an Equal Employment Opportunity Commission with the power to file lawsuits on behalf of aggrieved workers (“Civil Rights Acts,” 2014). Because the discrimination of employers and labor unions was now barred, it allowed the opportunity for many adult citizens to attend vocational schools and various training programs in order to receive additional education.

Although the 1964 Civil Rights Act did make some serious changes to the quality of life for the oppressed, according to the US DOE (2013), although the general employment picture was improving, disproportionately high levels of unemployment remained for blacks, non-English-speaking adults, and the undereducated. Manpower development and vocational education programs, as well as fiscal and monetary policies, were ineffective in altering this situation. The Civil Rights Act (1964) and subsequent Executive Orders that prohibited discrimination in employment practices based on race, sex, age, religion, or national origin still left large numbers of adults with limited educational attainment at a competitive disadvantage in the labor market and unable to take advantage of other social services generally available to better-educated segments of society.

Other influential factor includes what has been called the Radical 60’s, but today might be considered quite normal. The Black power movement rose up out of the civil rights movement along with other groups including student activists. More adults were attending institutions of higher education and the organization of antiwar demonstrations were taking over college campuses. People were angry—they wanted change and they organized and demanded it.

Women rejoiced in the passing of the 1963 Equal Pay Act and the National Organization for Women was founded in 1966. It’s purpose was to take action to bring women into full participation in the mainstream of American society now, exercising all the privileges and responsibilities thereof in truly equal partnership with men (“Statement of Purpose,” 2014).

The 1960s were characterized by rapid workforce growth, economic transformation resulting from automation, and policy attention to poverty alleviation through “Great Society” programs. Some of these programs included Head Start, Medicare, Community Action Agencies, Legal Aid, and Food Stamps, all of which continue to this day (“CLASP,” 2011). Many of these go hand in hand with adult education as they assisted those who may have benefited from adult education programs.

One additional influential factor during the 1960’s was the passage of the Library Services and Construction Act of 1964. According to the US DOE (2013), the 1964 Library Services and Construction Act (amended in 1970) is of particular importance in public adult education history because funds made available under these enactments stimulated delivery of library services to economically and socially disadvantaged, handicapped, homebound, and institutionalized adults.

Implications

As mentioned in the introduction: The 1960’s was a decade of advancement. Although viewed by many as being full of hate, sorrow, solace, and darkness, it also was a decade that brought forth a shift of transformation, and the opportunity for the world’s citizens to step up for the rights of others and the beginning of true reformation.

The transformation of the 1960’s really brought about change for many: the underemployed, the unemployed, the oppressed, and those discriminated against. To think that in a short decade so many new opportunities were made available while the world still dealt with the Vietnam War, campus uprisings, the rise of new social activism groups, the Civil Rights Movement, the assassination of leaders seeking change, and so many other issues.

All of the different Acts and Plans passed into federal legislation really made a difference (Man Power Training 1962; Civil Rights Act, 1964; Economic Opportunity Act, 1964; Higher Education Act of 1965; Adult Education Act, 1966; Elementary and Secondary Education Act Amendments, 1968) for so many who have benefited and whose children and grandchildren benefit today.
           We can learn so much from the 1960’s because although it was a rough time for many, a lot of opportunity was made available for so many as a result of the hard work, lobbying, and sacrifice of citizens from all walks of life. Adult education has been provided for citizens of all states of the United States and its territories. In the long run, the adult education programs provided during the 1960’s allowed the middle class to grow and provided opportunities for many as well as employment for those who ran the programs. This had a direct effect on the United States economy as some citizens were able to for the first time achieve home ownership, send themselves and/or their children to college, and travel across the United States for many who were discriminated against in the past. All of these factors have led to the improvement of adult literacy and quality of life for many citizens of the United States.

Summary of the History of Adult/Community Education
Area	Summary
Social Factors	Civil Rights Movement/Discrimination/Sexism, Poverty, Illiteracy, Unemployed, Unskilled, Under Educated
Highlights	Civil Rights Movement, War on Poverty, Area Development Act, Manpower Development & Training Act, Economic Opportunity Act (1964), Higher Education Act (1965), Adult Basic Education Act (1966)
Influential Factors	Assassinations of President Kennedy, Martin Luther King, Jr.; Malcolm X, Robert Kennedy, War on Poverty, Civil Rights Act, Unemployment, Poverty, National Organization for Women, Equal Opportunity Commission, Radical 60’s Groups, Funding for Federal and State Programs
Implications	Adult education programs in all states, realization that activism/empowerment can make change, education for more citizens, better economy overall, reduction in illiteracy

References

Brock, Thomas. (2010).  Young Adults and Higher Education: Barriers and Breakthroughs to               Success.  Transition to Adulthood, 20 (1), 109-132.

CLASP (2011). Developing America’s Workforce:  Learning from 40 Years of Policy and Practice to

Inform the Next Generation. [PDF document]. Retrieved February 02, 2015 from clasp.org:  http://www.clasp.org/documents/Workforce-Timeline.pdf

 Kremen, G. R. (1974). MDTA: The origins of the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962.

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Administration and Management. Available at: http://www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/history/mono-mdtatext.htm

 

Pollak, Stephen J.. "Economic Opportunity Act of 1964." Major Acts of Congress. 2004.

Retrieved February 01, 2015 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3407400076.html

 

Rose, Amy D. (1991).  Ends or Means:  An Overview of the History of the Adult Education Act. 

(ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, & Vocational Education). 

Statement of Purpose (1966). In The National Organization for Women’s 1966 Statement

of purpose.  Retrieved February 01, 2015 from Now.org: http://now.org/about/history/statement-of-purpose/ 

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Education, An American

Heritage—Federal Adult Education: A Legislative History 1964-2013, Washington, DC, 2013. 

U.S. Department of Education. (2013). An American Heritage, Federal Adult Education: 

        A  Legislative History, 1964-2013.   Retrieved February 01, 2015 from http://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/Adult_Ed_History_Report.pdf