Abby's History of Adult and Community Education

 Comments: Group 1 under Nichole Mann and Group 3 under Jill Cerny

                            History of Adult and Community Education:

Adult Education in the 1960s

Abigail Vannatta

Ball State University

 

History of Adult and Community Education: Adult Education in the 1960s

Introduction

            The 1960s is arguably one of the most critical times in our nation’s history. This time period was characterized by political upheaval, revolutionary thinking, opposition of injustices and tremendous change. The decade saw the rise of the Vietnam War, the Civil Rights Movement, the Hippie Counterculture and new legislation aimed at solving social issues such as discrimination based on race and gender as well as poverty. The controversial issues of the 1960s served to power meaningful change in societal, governmental and educational arenas (A&E Television Networks, 2015).

          The Vietnam War is one of the two most influential social issues that characterize this decade. The rivalry between traditionalists and hippie counterculture led to political polarization. Antiwar protests rose in popularity among young, idealistic Americans which were fueled by the drafting practices of the government and the lack of effectiveness of the nation’s efforts overseas. College campuses became the trademark location for antiwar protests. Demonstrations took place on college campuses across the nation often resulting in temporary institutional closures and even violence such as physical altercations between students and police officers and vandalism including arson.  In order to find relief from the political stress of this time period, many young American’s opted to become members of the free-love counterculture characterized by promiscuity, drugs, rock-n-roll music and nomadic existence. Emigration to Canada in order to escape the draft also rose in popularity during this time (A&E Television Networks, 2015; Independence Hall Association in Philadelphia, 2014).

            The second most influential issue was the Civil Rights Movement. The segregation and oppression of African Americans, women and individuals with disabilities prompted the disenfranchised of the nation to speak out in order to gain equity politically, economically and educationally. This movement can be characterized as both peaceful and brutal. Peaceful demonstrations and protests, such as those of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., often became scenes of police brutality and hate crimes. This movement was also a contributor to the polarization of the nation. This polarization and backlash from the community eventually led to involvement of extremist groups from both sides, such as the Klu Klux Klan and the Black Panthers (Morris, 1999).

            In result of the political upheaval of the nation, the political leaders of the time campaigned for resolutions to the nation’s conflict. Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson sought to pass legislation that would provide equality, both racial and economic, for the citizens of the United States. Kennedy, and later Johnson, envisioned a ‘Great Society” in which people were no longer oppressed or disenfranchised. During Johnson’s term as President, landmark legislation paved the way for federally funded programs such as Medicaid, Medicare, Head Start and Job Corps. Many of the Acts passed during the 1960s changed the face of adult education in America (A&E Television Networks, 2015).

Highlights

            Adult Education in the 1960s can be characterized as undergoing great change. In response to the social climate of the time, many changes to the underlying structure, goals and accessibility of adult education were put into place at the federal level. Adult education began to reflect the need for basic skills development and technical/vocational training (U.S. Department of Education, 2013).

In the early 1960s, several legislative attempts were made at improving the state of unemployment, under-education and poverty in the United States. However, these fell short of achieving the desired outcome. It wasn’t until the passing of the Civil Rights Act in 1964 that true change began to occur.  Upon examination of the accessibility of equal employment rights for African Americans, it became apparent that there was a discrepancy of skills, literacy and competitive ability. In order to compensate, the government began to pass legislation that provided opportunities for people of color as well as many others in adult education (U.S. Department of Education, 2013).

During the mid-1960s, tremendous milestones were accomplished at the national level in the area of adult education. A remarkable amount of legislation was passed during the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations that provided the access to education for the individuals previously marginalized and underserved, namely African Americans, the uneducated, the unemployed and the low-income. From the years 1963 to 1966, six legislative acts were passed in order to improve the education of the nation’s people and thus achieving the “Great Society” (A&E Television Networks, 2015; U.S. Department of Education, 2013).

The Vocational Education Act of 1963, developed to provide federal assistance to vocational education programming such as residential schools and work-study programs, was the first of many acts aimed at providing federal funding for adult education (Mobley, 1964). Additional support for vocational education and basic skills training came as a result of the Economic Opportunity and Adult Basic Education Acts of 1964 which provided adult basic education programming, Job Corps and work-study programs for universities and colleges (Boone, 1972).

In 1965, the next two Acts affecting adult education were passed: The Higher Education Act and The Manpower Act. The Higher Education Act provided federal funding, now known as Pell Grants and Stafford Loans, exclusively for adult students. This act also provided universities and colleges funds to provide community education and service (Hiemstra, 1995; U.S. Department of Education, 2007). The Manpower Act, actually an amendment to a previous act, provided training for under-educated persons and retraining for individuals who had lost their jobs to displacement (Bailey & Danzinger, 2013).

The last legislation to be passed during the mid-1960s was the Adult Education Act of 1966. (Hiemstra, 1995). This act enabled the expansion of adult education programming by providing funding to states for training of teachers, recruitment, materials and administration. At this point in the nation’s history, much of society had become disillusioned by the effects of the Vietnam War, the Civil Rights struggle and the economic hardship of recession. The once grand notion of the “Great Society” had lost credibility in the eyes of the nation. In result, the focus of adult education, reflected within this Act, placed less focus on vocational training and more focus on institutional improvement and expansion (U.S. Department of Education, 2013).

Influential Factors

Adult education in the 1960s evolved under the influence of several factors. The political and social climate provided ample opportunity for revolutionary thinking. Many educational theorists and activists began to develop some of the most prominent ideas that have persisted throughout adult education. M. S. Knowles began exploring the European concept of andragogy. In 1968, he published the first of many works regarding this concept entitled “Andragogy, Not Pedagogy”. This concept eventually became one of the main tenets of adult education (Merriam, 2001). Paulo Friere, a radical educational activist, was inspired by the events of the 1960s, especially the oppression underlying the Civil Rights Movement. He eventually went on to develop his theory of critical consciousness that focuses on education for the purposes of empowering the oppressed and changing society as a whole (Kirkendall, 2004).

In addition to revolutionaries in education, the 1960s was witness to significant political leaders. In the early 1960s, President John F. Kennedy envisioned a “Great Society” and brought political support to the Civil Rights Movement. After his assassination, President Lyndon B. Johnson carried on the war on poverty and racial oppression. Lastly, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. had a dream that inspired the nation. His vision of peaceful protest was upheld in the struggle for equal rights and was realized in 1964 (Vander Lei & Miller, 1999). The visions of these great leaders culminated in legislation and inclusive practices that reshaped both education and the nation. Schools were no longer segregated, the disenfranchised were afforded the opportunity to benefit from basic and vocational education, higher education was no longer reserved only for the lucky few who could afford tuition and institutions were provided the means to train a highly qualified staff, equip classrooms and provide community outreach and recruitment (U.S. Department of Education, 2013).

The third set of influential factors were agencies and organizations that brought attention to the importance of adult education and lobbied for improvement in services provided to adult students. Two very prominent organizations made huge contributions to higher education in the 1960s. The Carnegie Association, under the Presidency of Alan Pifer, took steps to improve the education of disadvantaged students of the time and broadened their scope to include higher education (Columbia University, 2015). In addition to the contributions of this program, the Adult Education Association of the United States moved their offices to Washington D.C. in 1964 in order to "to further the acceptance of education as a process continuing through-out life; to afford opportunities to professional and non-professional adult educators to increase their competence; to receive and disseminate information about adult education; to promote a balanced development of educational services for adults; and to cooperate with adult education agencies internationally." (Adult Education Association, 1994). By moving their office to Washington, members were able to accomplish their goals through lobbying with the lawmakers of the time.

Implications

            First and foremost, the most salient lesson that can be learned from the evolution of adult education in the 1960s is that equal, quality education should be provided to all regardless of race, gender or other demographic descriptors. The Civil Rights Movement was the result of the unfair treatment of African Americans, women and individuals with disabilities. Not only is it morally wrong to discriminate against individuals, it is counterproductive to deny education to those individuals who need it to overcome poverty, unemployment and illiteracy. During this period, President Johnson made it his mission to use education to relieve the nation of injustices and poverty (Bailey, 2013; Morris, 1999; U.S Department of Education, 2013).

The importance of adult education in the War on Poverty leads to another lesson that can be taken from this decade: the importance of financial aid. The first federal funding for adult education came as a result of legislation passed during the 1960s. The leaders of the time understood the significance of providing assistance to individuals pursuing education. This is something that should be kept in mind when considering the continuation of federal funding for education (U.S. Department of Education, 2013).

            The third lesson that can be learned from this time period is the importance of vocational education. Great emphasis was placed on vocational programs as a solution to unemployment, poverty and lack of education among America’s citizens. With similar circumstances in today’s world of adult education, it serves as a reminder of the need for programs that provide quick, applicable education that lead to job attainment. In addition, the speed at which new technologies are developed puts additional pressure on the nation’s ability to remain competitive in a global market. Vocational education is paramount in remaining relevant.

             The last lesson that can be taken from this time period is the potential influence educational organizations have on making meaningful change. The expansion of definitions and lobbying seen in the 1960s helped to solidify higher education as a means of educating the adults of America. The influence of these organizations is still seen in education today. Along with the early pioneers, numerous organizations have been developed to support just about every demographic of adult learner imaginable. These organizations are the backbone of higher education and adult learning (Adult Education Association, 1994; Columbia University, 2015).

Conclusion

Leaps and bounds in the world of adult education were accomplished during the 1960s. The educational privileges that are sometimes taken for granted in today’s higher education are products of the struggle and persistence of individuals, educators, lawmakers and political leaders during this critical time in history. Current adult education owes a debt of gratitude to this decade and the outcomes it saw accomplished.

References

A&E Television Networks. (2015). The 1960s. Retrieved from http://www.history.com/

topics/1960s

Adult Education Association. (1994). Adult education association (AEA-USA)/American association for adult and continuing education (AAACE) records. Retrieved from http://library.syr.edu/digital/guides/a/aaace.htm

Bailey, M. J. & Danzinger, S. (2013). Legacies of the war on poverty. New York, NY: Russel Sage Foundation.

Boone, R. W. (1972). Reflections of citizen participation and the Economic Opportunity Act. Public Administration Review, 32, 444-456.

Columbia University. (2015). Carnegie corporation of New York: Historical note. Retrieved from http://library.columbia.edu/locations/rbml/units/carnegie/ccny/history.html

Hiemstra, R. (1995). An annotated chronology of landmarks in the history of adult education with particular reference to the U.S.A. Retrieved from http://roghiemstra.com/

historychron.htm  

Independence Hall Association in Philadelphia. (2014). The antiwar movement. Retrieved from http://www.ushistory.org/us/55d.asp

Kirkendall, A. J. (2004). Paulo Friere, Eduardo Frei, literacy training and the politics of consciousness in Chile, 1964-1970. Journal of Latin American Studies, 36(4), 687-717.

Merriam, S. B. (2001). Andragogy and self-directed learning: Pillars of adult learning theory. In S. B. Merriam (Eds.), New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education (3-13). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Mobley, M. D. (1964). A review of federal vocational-education legislation 1862-1963. Theory into Practice, 3(5), 167-170.

Morris, A. D. (1999). A retrospective on the civil rights movement: Political and intellectual landmarks. Annual Review of Sociology, 25, 517-539.

U. S. Department of Education. (2007). 40^th anniversary of the Adult Education Act. Washington, DC: Office of Career, Technical, and Adult Education.

U. S. Department of Education. (2013). Federal adult education: A legislative history 1964-2013. Washington, DC: Office of Vocational and Adult Education.

Vander Lei, E. & Miller, K. D. (1999). “I have a dream” in context Ceremonial protest and African American jeremiad. College English, 62(1), 83-99.

Area	Summary
Social Background	Vietnam War, Civil Rights Movement, hippie counterculture, recession
Highlights	Legislative Acts: Vocational Education, Economic Opportunity, Adult Basic Education, Higher Education, Adult Education, Manpower, Civil Rights Focus on vocational education and basic skills training
Influences	JFK, LBJ and MLK; Knowles, Friere; AEA-USA and Carnegie, Vietnam, poverty, Civil Rights
Implications	Equal education for all, financial aid, vocational education, importance of educational organizations